A first draft of the story Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

A first draft of the story - Essay Example Despite her circumstances, Constance brought her children up with the strong determination to make them get better lives. The children in turn worked hard. Being used to difficulties, they were able to help their mother as they went to school. They helped her until they were able to find their wings. Now, they are all successful. Her first daughter became a doctor and married a British doctor and they decided to raise their family in Europe. Another went to California to be raise her own family and the last son chose the easy and lazy life. she knows that her son is just around the corner but she seldom sees him. Her strength is drained. Her feet cannot carry her anymore to places she would want to go in search of her son. All she can do now is drag herself to the welfare building when winter arrives so that she would be sure to have something to eat. A lot of things changed in her seventy years of existence but she thinks nothing has changed at

The Quality of Education in the Public School System Essay Example for Free

The Quality of Education in the Public School System Essay Basic education whether it is from a public or a private school is one of the most fundamental needs of mankind. It is responsible for the advancement of our civilization. Education is a vital necessity and the fundamental right of an individual. It is difficult to put a price tag for education. However, it can be said that education is the window to numerous opportunities and the most essential means of poverty elevation. According to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights Everyone has the right to education Education shall be directed to the full development of human personality and to the strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. It shall promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations, racial or religious groups, and shall further the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace. (art.26 Universal Declaration of Human Rights). Today’s education system has become an issue of debate especially between the public and the private school educational quality. Each and every parent has their own set of choices for their children. Many people opt for having a religious affiliation, for others the costs of private school may not be affordable (Public School Review n.pag). This paper compares the major differences between both public and the private schools and also gives a few recommendations of improving the quality of education in the public school system. If we take into consideration the cost involved in the public and the private schools, it can be noted that public schools are funded through federal, state and local taxes. For instance, when a person pays taxes to the government they are paying for their childs education and the education of other children in the community. On the other hand, private schools do not run on the tax revenues or any fund from the government.   Instead, these schools are funded through tuition, fundraising, donations and private grants. Therefore, when a parent has to send their child to school they compare the cost of education. If the parent is not financially capable to pay the fees for the private school, then obviously the parent opts for public schools where the fees structure is much less and compromise on the quality of education. In order to improve the quality of the public schools it is essential to increase the funding to these schools, improve the infrastructure and also increase the number of teaching faculty. When it comes to admission, public schools admit all children, and therefore these schools are multicultural in nature. As per the rules in most of the countries, public schools are open for all and must educate all children (Public Education Network n.pag). Private schools are selective in nature. For instance, schools managed by churches give preference to Christians. They are not compelled to accept every child by any rule. Today because of this reason private school admission is very competitive. It is therefore important that public schools need to continue and improve their multicultural nature and promote education among all communities equally. It is essential to recognize the diversity of groups and issues that are present in every town and city (Leistyna 1-23). Whether fair or not, educational opportunity and academic achievement are directly tied to the social divisions associated with race, ethnicity, gender, first language, and social class. The level and quality of educational attainment either open the doors to opportunity or close them. —Educational psychologist Edmund W. Gordon in The Covenant with Black America In general public schools offer subjects which usually includes math, English, reading, writing, science, history, physical education, music and arts. The substance of what children learn is mandated by the state and learning is measured through tests and examinations. In private schools these subjects are flexible for students. Besides the students are taught the curriculum using various effective techniques such as take children on extended outdoor trips that blend lessons across the curriculum. Such innovative trips increase the practical knowledge of the students. Private schools are not bound by any rules and therefore they can create their own curriculum and assessment systems. In order to improve the public schools it is important to take some of the special teaching techniques followed by the private schools (GreatSchools.net n.pag). In terms of the teaching faculty it is a well known fact that the teachers in public schools are usually state certified or, at least working toward certification. Public school teachers need compulsory college degrees and to be licensed by the state (Broward County Public Schools n.pag). Qualified teachers with certification ensure that they have gone through the training required by the state, which includes student teaching and coursework. However, this is lacking in a private schools. Teachers in private schools may not be required to have certification but often have good subject area expertise and an undergraduate or graduate degree in the subject they teach. It is important to maintain the standards of payment in public and private schools because teachers also need to maintain high standards of living. Private schools are usually committed to providing attention to each and every child individually and therefore keep the class size small. Many parents choose private schools for this reason. In public schools though many states recognize the value of small classes, they are unable to do so because of overcrowding and lack of good infrastructure especially in large school districts and urban schools (GreatSchools.net n.pag). As a result teachers cannot give equal attention to individual students or for students with special needs. It is essential therefore to decrease the size of classes in public schools to improve the quality of education. Finally, it can be said that in order to improve the public education system, it is essential to equitably allocate resources. For instance, educational and administrative staffing ratios show how many students per teacher or per administrator are in each school. Work Cited    Public School Review, Public School vs. Private School (2007) Public School Review LLC. 21 October 2007, http://www.publicschoolreview.com/private-public-schools.php Public Education Network, Public Schools Must Be Held Accountable, Americans Say (26 July 2007) 21 October 2007, http://www.publiceducation.org/doc/Press_Releases/20070726_Public.doc Leistyna, P. Extending the Possibilities of Multicultural Community Partnerships in Urban Public Schools, The Urban Review, Volume 34, Number 1 / March, 2002, pp 1-23. GreatSchools.net, Private vs. Public Schools: Whats the Difference? (February 2007) GreatSchools Staff, 21 October 2007, http://www.greatschools.net/cgi-bin/showarticlefeature/ca/197 Broward County Public Schools, Public Vs. Private Education 21 October 2007, http://www.browardschools.com/info/education.htm

Examining the Factors affecting Successful Strategic Management

Examining the Factors affecting Successful Strategic Management Todays an organization want to achieve success, they should consider all aspects for reaching the desired ends and how to avoid difficulties to help plan successful strategies. When an organisation has a strategy it enables them to ensure that decisions made on a day-to-day basis fit in with its long term interests. Strategies are also important as any decisions an organisation makes today can have a negative impact on its future results. A strategy will also help encourage employees, departments to work together to achieve common goals. In this essay I will concentrate on three schools, including design school, planning school and positioning schools. Furthermore, I will clarify some points in others schools of thought by particular looking at the overall, key issues and assumptions of this theory. According to Mintzberg, Ahlstrand, and Lampel (1998), they suggest that there are a lot of influential factors affect strategy. The schools will help organization to evaluate their macro and micro dynamics of a company. The first three schools that is design, planning and positioning schools of thought are prescriptive in nature. Those schools discuss how a strategy should be formulated. Accordingly, organization based on current situation and its environment to identify directions actions. The next six schools, entrepreneurial, cognitive, learning, power, cultural, and environmental are concerned with a specific aspect of strategy formation rather than prescribing an ideal strategic behaviour, it may be characterized as descriptive, emergent and subjective. Whereas, the configuration school alone constitutes the third group that integrates the various elements of strategy formation from all the previous schools mentioned. The first of the prescriptive schools is the Design school. The value of this strategy formation is that it seeks to establish a fit between an organizations strengths and weakness and its internal potential and external possibilities. This school also considers the role played by managerial values and social responsibility as important in the process of strategy making (Shekhar, 2009). Therefore, the CEO has a responsibility for a strategy formation. On the other hand, the strategy should be individualized, simple and explicit. According to his framework, a strategy formulated should be consistent in its goals as well as policies. Moreover, it must be adaptive to the changes in the organizations environment, provide and maintain competitive and should be feasible. The advantage of this type of school is that it forces consideration of external factors and will be more appropriate in organisation that needs reorientation. In the assignment 2, I will concentrate on how both internal a s well as external factors impact strategy of organization, and also according to this theory to provide some evaluation, selection, using SWOT analysis and Porters Five Force to descript how organization can fit between strength, weakness and the opportunities. The next school that I will discuss is a Planning school. It is a member of the prescriptive schools and a strategy formulation also mention as a formal process. The principal of this school has a separation between strategy formulation and strategy implementation. According to this school, strategy is a plan, a direction, a guide or a course of action into the future. The planning school consent with most of the premises in the Design school. However, the execution of strategy became formalized. The CEO takes the responsibility for the formulation of the whole process. By applying powerful analytic tools such as rigorous strategic planning methodologies, scenario analysis, managers can forecast the future of their business and can be accurately enough to let them to choose a suitable strategic direction. I will discuss these issues in the next assignment. The Positioning school also is part of the first group of schools. This school is different from other schools, it also known as an analytical process. In the positioning school, there are only a few key strategies or positions in the market place, which is economic and competitive, while there are no limits to strategies in some schools, for example the design and planning schools. The process focused more narrowly on calculation and on the close-ended selection of strategic positions than on the development of integrated and unusual strategic perspectives or on the specification of coordinated sets of plans (Marko, 2004). Strategies developed under this school are generic, specifically common, identifiable positions in the marketplace. In addition, when compared with other schools, it is less emphasis on political effects, including internal and external on the strategy formation in an organization. In the next assignment, I will focus on tools, methods such as BCG matrix, Michael Porters Generic Strategies, Profit Impact of Market Strategies and some other tools to clarify how to analysis and calculate in order to support the process of developing the strategy. In the next assignment, I will highlight some of the critical aspects of strategy formation in ten schools of through. In detail, the entrepreneurial school views strategy formation as a visionary process and visions can be set by a single or multiple founders of a company. The power school views strategy formation as a process of negotiation, the power refers to political power or the political relations surrounding an organization. The cognitive school views strategy formation as a mental process, it analyses how people perceive patterns and process information. The learning school views strategy formation as an emergent process of trial and error learning within an organization. The cultural school views strategy formation as a collective process, based on beliefs and understandings shared by the members of various groups and departments in organization. The environmental school views strategy formation as a reactive process, it described the relationship between particular dimens ions of the environment. Thereby reacting to the challenges imposed the external environment. According to configuration school, this strategy formation is seen as a process of transforming the organization from one state of decision-making structure into another. Mintzberg, Ahlstrand and Lampel (1998) stated the key to this strategy if for the organisation to recognise the need for the transformation, however to be able to do this without damaging the organisation. From this assignment I have learnt the importance of implementing strategic management into an organisation to gain competitive advantage. Applying Mintzbergs schools could help an organization about evaluation, development and transformation. Using the schools, organization can be able to identify their objectives, its strengths and weakness, to help expand on potential, developing on their opportunities and strengths. The key point to the schools is finding which strategy making technique best fits into an organisation, and developing further on it. Having successful achieving these goals, it will transform and give an organisation higher strategic competence. (1090 words)

Mega Farms :: essays research papers

Mega Farms Effects On Water Water pollution has been an increasing problem over the last few years. Pollution itself is when a substance or energy is introduced into the soil, air, or water in a concentrate. Pollution comes in many forms; agricultural, urban runoff, industrial, sedimentary, animal wastes, and leeching from landfills/septic systems just to name a few. These pollutants are very detrimental to the environment. Whether they are alone or combined with another form of pollution they are very harmful. Over the last hundred years the problems with pollution have been increasing with time. This is due to both the increase in human population, and the increases in technology we have made as a society. If we plan on having our resources here for many years to come we are going to have to make some drastic changes in the way we treat the earth, and these changes will have to start with our pollutants. (Jones,1993,pp.4-15)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Agricultural pollution is a very big contributor to water pollution. Problems we see with agriculture are applications of fertilizers, insecticides, and pesticides. We have made vast improvements in the types of chemicals we are using, as to how environmentally friendly they are. In 1985 the amount of fertilizer added to America’s fields was 11.5 million tons. Not only do these chemicals leech in to the soil, but they are also swept off the soils by rain and wind. When these fertilizers reach the water there is a sudden boom in plant growth. When the plants die, bacteria that need oxygen to live eat their bodies. This starts to deplete the amount of oxygen in the water for other fish and animals to live and breath, and they end up dying. Besides the chemical contamination on the farm there are major problems with animal wastes. (Jones,1993,pp.39-60)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Over the last 30 or so years there has been an increased demand for food. Foods like pork, chicken, turkey, and beef. With the demand for meats, there is also an increased demand for grains to feed these animals. So more land is needed to grow the feed, less space is available for the feedlots. More and more of these feedlots have been popping up over the landscape. And the amounts of animals crammed into the small spaces are also increasing. There can be as few as 50 to as many as 7 million in a single confinement.

Ethical Issue: Abortion

ETHICAL ISSUE: ABORTION INTRODUCTION The root question to ethics is whether abortion is considered murder or a justified killing? Is it morally wrong and if so, should it be made legal or illegal? There are mainly 2 views towards abortion. The pro-choice regard abortion as acceptable in some circumstances as women should be given a freedom of choice. Whereas the pro-life regard abortion an absolute act of wrong and should be criminalized. Let us first take a look at various approaches to help us better understand and justify both sides of the argument. RIGHTS APPROACHA pro-choice would argue that women have the rights to her life, body and health. Before abortion was permitted, women will either have to carry their pregnancy to term or desperately seek to abort due to various reasons (eg. health, incest, rape, career), thus resorting to unsafe and life-threatening procedures. However, with access to safe and legal abortions, women will have the basic right of managing their own bodie s and the risk of health will be reduced. One example is an article extracted from the National Organization for Women which mentioned the deaths of women who turned to illegal and unsafe abortions. Refer to Example 1) Besides, women have the rights to liberty and thus have the power to exercise their rights to abortion. In the event a woman needs to continue her employment or meet other obligations, she will not be forced to bear a child against her will which can result in misery as it becomes impossible for her to carry out her duties and obligations in the usual manner. An example is from the New York Times Magazine (LIVES – When One Is Enough). A woman named Amy Richards explains why she decided to go for abortion. (Refer to Example 2) In addition, women have the rights to sovereignty.By allowing abortion, women would not be unjustly forced into motherhood which in turn forces them into submissive roles in society. Thus their rights to livelihood and continuation of educ ation and profession will not be depleted. They can have the potential of being on equal status, dominion and power as men. Under the concept of personhood, it is argued that fetuses are not yet born and are not sentient beings. They do not have the capacity to have experiences (eg. feeling pain) and are not yet reasoning, self-aware beings capable of moral reciprocity.Hence, they do not have a substantial right to life yet. However, I feel that fetuses are considered human beings from conception and thus they should enjoy the full moral status of born human beings. It is said that although fetuses may not be persons yet, they have the potential to become one and thus, fetuses should enjoy basic moral rights to life. Hence, the rights of an unborn should not be compromised against the rights of the mother. UTILITARIAN APPROACH On one hand, it is argued that legalizing abortion diminishes the maternal mortality rate of women within the society.Studies have indicated that after the le galization of abortion, it has resulted in a much lower percentage of maternal death rates due to greater access to safer and legal methods of abortion and timely abortions, thereby reducing the risk of health complications. (Refer to Example 3) Besides, timely abortions can be made. Abortions done in early stages (1st trimester) will greatly reduce the fetus’s suffering compared to later stages where the fetus starts developing into a sentient being (capability to experience suffering).In addition, it can potentially reduce the number of unwanted children. In the cases of rape or physical and mental defects of the unborn child, abortion will be the better alternative to reduce the potential physical and mental suffering the mother feels that her child will possibly face in future. For instance, the child suffers psychologically due to his peers teasing his physical defects. Furthermore, it can help diminish the growth of over-populated areas especially in countries like Sing apore. The New Statesman indicated that â€Å"The world as a whole is overpopulated by 2 billion†.A decrease in population can help to reduce the rate at which natural resources are being used and reduce competition for employment opportunities which results in a higher standard of living. However, I believe banning abortion has its benefits as well. A study revealed that women who had undergone abortions place themselves at a higher death risk than women who give birth. A Finland study revealed a 7 fold increased death rate among aborting women resulting from suicide due to post-abortion distress. Besides, it encourages economic growth.Parents will have to spend financial resources on their child for the purposes of education, clothing and food. Due to the increase in expenditure, demand increases, leading to a rise in supply. The overall effect will lead to an increase in the country’s Gross Domestic Product. Furthermore, it encourages population growth in under-popu lated countries such as Australia. This prevents the excessive exploitation of resources such as food, energy and minerals and helps to better maximize the utility of such resources.In addition, in the event that the mother decides to send her child for adoption due to reasons like being financially handicapped, there will be more opportunities for infertile couples to adopt a child. COMMON GOOD APPROACH On one hand, allowing abortion reduces the overall suffering of unwanted children in the society which; can be due to the inexperience and financial instability of the mother. Some children thus remain in the foster care where a sense of loss and overwhelming rejection is developed.It also gives women the liberty to abort the baby based on their right to privacy as they might not want others to learn about their pregnancy. The US Supreme Court found that women have better mental health when offered abortion as an option. This means children who are born are wanted more by their fami ly and thus they will be able to attain a better welfare and education. In addition, abortion has allowed women to have an opportunity to pursue their life and educational goals which they may not be able to pursue after being a mother.Furthermore, legalizing abortion serves to protect the safety of women as now; many will not turn to illegal abortion but instead seek proper medical aborting procedures. Nonetheless, I feel that banning abortion emphasizes on the importance of responsible contraceptive usage and birth control methods which is crucial to help reduce the occurrence of accidental pregnancy.. According to the National Abortion Federation, 78% of teenage pregnancies are unintended, out of which 35% sought abortion.It also increases the awareness of respect for sex. It is important to understand that a woman is not an â€Å"object† for sexual gratification nor is sex to be abused without regard. Thus, banning abortion stresses on the importance for taking responsibi lity for one’s actions. Furthermore, it helps us to better appreciate human lives. A life of an unborn cannot be undermined to the life of a born human. This teaches us to have compassion and empathy towards any human life. VIRTUE APPROACH By allowing abortion, one of the virtues developed is love.Love leads the mother to abort the baby as she is unconfident of being a good mother to the child, thus she rather not let him live a difficult life in the long run. Self-accountability is also developed as the mother has to face possible consequences that could arise as a result of her abortion. (Eg. Depression, guilt) Besides, courage and fortitude is developed as the mother has to confront the reality of abortion and take courage to accept the responsibility of abortion and its aftermath effects (Eg. post traumatic stress disorder).In addition, resilience is developed in the mother throughout the entire abortion process for having the strength and ability to cope with the reality and effects of abortion. This helps them to move on with their lives instead of being overwhelmed with emotional trauma and setbacks. On the other hand, by banning abortion, it gives the mother determination to carry on her pregnancy despite external factors that may sway her decision such as being a single mother and unconfident of bringing her child up singlehandedly.It also develops self-accountability as one has to responsible for one’s own actions. In addition, courage and fortitude is developed as the mother may have to face possible consequences for taking responsibility for the child such as spending more financial resources for the child’s sake. Impartiality can also be developed as the mother is able to be objective in her views and preserve the life of an innocent despite the fact that her child was the result of rape. Self-sacrifice and selflessness can also be developed as the mother decides to put aside her own needs to keep the child.She may have to qui t her current job and terminate all other obligations even though she might not be mentally prepared to raise a child yet. Fore-sightedness is developed as the mother would have to plan ahead of time to provide her child the best treatment possible. FAIRNESS/JUSTICE APPROACH It is argued that if abortion is allowed, everyone will be given an option to abort regardless whether they want to. Since everyone is given a choice, it is fair as it respects everyone’s individual rights.Since an unborn is only considered human when it is a sentient being, it is fair to abort it in its early stages and not treated as homicide. Furthermore, since it is not born yet, it does not possess human rights to life and thus its life should be decided by its mother. Furthermore, it is only fair that the mother has the right and option to decide what to do with her child since it is her flesh and blood. On the contrary, I believe a human life is determined at conception. Hence abortion equates to t he murder of any born human. Thus, it is only fair to grant an unborn an equal right to living as any born human.Additionally it is also fair to grant the baby the right to live as the baby is an innocent party that should not be dragged into abortion as a result of rape, incest, careless or irresponsible acts of humans. PERSONAL STAND In conclusion, multitudes have come to believe that they benefit from abortion. However, they had failed to realize that if a choice needs to be made, it should be done so before conception of the child. There is no real difference between killing a child before or after it is born. In the case of rape, it is true that the mother may not have come to terms ith carrying her pregnancy to term. However, it is important to adopt an objective view. An unborn should not be killed simply to alleviate the suffering of the mother. Moreover, if abortion is so easy attainable, how many would stop to think of the cruelty of taking away a life of an innocent? Now that legal abortion gives women a safeguard, more will turn to it. Since the Supreme Court handed down the Roe v. Wade decision in 1973, there had been a 64% increase in the number of abortions in the United States. In addition, family values may be distorted in generations to come.By aborting her baby, the mother-to-be will lose part of her motherhood and respect. Legalizing abortion also makes it easier for one to overlook the negative consequences and take abortion for granted. Whereas, banning abortion allows people to think twice before acting and take responsibility for their actions. Therefore, I believe abortion should be banned. (1930 words) EXAMPLE 1 [pic] EXAMPLE 2 [pic] EXAMPLE 3 [pic] REFERENCES Josh Levinson. (2004). Abortion poses great ethical dilemma. In The daily campus. Retrieved 18 May 2012, from http://www. dailycampus. com/2. 7438/abortion-poses-great-ethical-dilemma-1. 067241. Josh Marshall. (2004). The Abortion Dilemma: Legal Isn't Always Ethical. In Ethics s coreboard. Retrieved 18 May, 2012 from http://www. ethicsscoreboard. com/list/abortion2. html Claire Pomeroy. (2008). Abortion and Women's Rights: Unification of Pro-Life and Pro-Choice through Feminism. In Serendip. Retrieved 18 May, 2012 from http://serendip. brynmawr. edu/exchange/node/1845 Amy Richards. (2004). LIVES; When One Is Enough. In nytimes. Retrieved 18 May, 2012 from http://www. nytimes. com/2004/07/18/magazine/lives-when-one-is-enough. html Unknown. (2008). Utilitarianism vs.Moral Duty: Ethical Dilemmas of Abortion. In ivythesis. typepad. Retrieved 18 May, 2012 from http://ivythesis. typepad. com/term_paper_topics/2008/02/utilitarianism. html Abortion Access Project. (2003). The impact of illegal abortion. In ourbodiesourselves. org. Retrieved 18 May, 2012 from http://www. ourbodiesourselves. org/book/companion. asp? compID=100&id=20 Unknown. (2005). When abortion was illegal. In socialworker. org. Retrieved 18 May, 2012 from http://socialistworker. org/2005-2/562/562 _06_Abortion. shtml EI. (2002). Abortion Increases Women’s Mortality Rate. In afterabortion. rg. Retrieved 18 May, 2012 from http://afterabortion. org/2002/abortion-increases-womens-mortality-rates/ Austine Cline. (Unknown). Abortion is a serious ethical issue. In atheism. about. Retrieved 18 May, 2012 from http://atheism. about. com/od/abortioncontraception/p/AbortionEthics. htm Kundan Pandey. (2011). Ethical Issues on Abortion. In goaccess. org. Retrieved 18 May, 2012 from http://www. goaccess. org/ethical-issues-on-abortion. html BrookesB. (2005). Abortion: An ethical dilemma. In writework. Retrieved 18 May, 2012 from http://www. writework. com/essay/abortion-ethical-dilemma

The Social Organization

The late Professor Fiske, in his Outline of Cosmic Philosophy, made a very interesting remark about societies like those of China, ancient Egypt, and ancient Assyria. â€Å"I am expressing,† he said, â€Å"something more than an analogy, I am describing a real homology so far as concerns the process of development,–when I say that these communities simulated modern European nations, much in the same way that a tree-fern of the carboniferous period simulated the exogenous trees of the present time. So far as this is true of China, it is likewise true of Japan. The constitution of the old Japanese society was no more than an amplification of the constitution of the family,–the patriarchal family of primitive times. All modern Western societies have been developed out of a like patriarchal condition: the early civilizations of Greece and Rome were similarly constructed, upon a lesser scale.But the patriarchal family in Europe was disintegrated thousands of years ag o; the gens and the curia dissolved and disappeared; the originally distinct classes became fused together; and a total reorganization of society was gradually [230] effected, everywhere resulting in the substitution of voluntary for compulsory cooperation. Industrial types of society developed; and a state-religion overshadowed the ancient and exclusive local cults. But society in Japan never, till within the present era, became one coherent body, never developed beyond the clan-stage.It remained a loose agglomerate of clan-groups, or tribes, each religiously and administratively independent of the rest; and this huge agglomerate was kept together, not by voluntary cooperation, but by strong compulsion. Down to the period of Meiji, and even for some time afterward, it was liable to split and fall asunder at any moment that the central coercive power showed signs of weakness. We may call it a feudalism; but it resembled European feudalism only as a tree-fern resembles a tree.Let us first briefly consider the nature of the ancient Japanese society. Its original unit was not the household, but the patriarchal family,–that is to say, the gens or clan, a body of hundreds or thousands of persons claiming descent from a common ancestor, and so religiously united by a common ancestor-worship,–the cult of the Ujigami. As I have said before, there were two classes of these patriarchal families: the O-uji, or Great Clans; and the Ko-uji, or Little Clans.The lesser were branches of the greater, and subordinate to [231] them,–so that the group formed by an O-uji with its Ko-uji might be loosely compared with the Roman curia or Greek phratry. Large bodies of serfs or slaves appear to have been attached to the various great Uji; and the number of these, even at a very early period, seems to have exceeded that of the members of the clans proper. The different names given to these subject-classes indicate different grades and kinds of servitude.One name w as tomobe, signifying bound to a place, or district; another was yakabe, signifying bound to a family; a third was kakibe, signifying bound to a close, or estate; yet another and more general term was tami, which anciently signified â€Å"dependants,† but is now used in the meaning of the English word â€Å"folk. † †¦ There is little doubt that the bulk of the people were in a condition of servitude, and that there were many forms of servitude. Mr.Spencer has pointed out that a general distinction between slavery and serfdom, in the sense commonly attached to each of those terms, is by no means easy to establish; the real state of a subject-class, especially in early forms of society, depending much more upon the character of the master, and the actual conditions of social development, than upon matters of privilege and legislation. In speaking of early Japanese institutions, the distinction is particularly hard to draw: we are still but little informed as to the condition of the subject [232] classes in ancient times.It is safe to assert, however, that there were then really but two great classes,–a ruling oligarchy, divided into many grades; and a subject population, also divided into many grades. Slaves were tattooed, either on the face or some part of the body, with a mark indicating their ownership. Until within recent years this system of tattooing appears to have been maintained in the province of Satsuma,–where the marks were put especially upon the hands; and in many other provinces the lower classes were generally marked by a tattoo on the face.Slaves were bought and sold like cattle in early times, or presented as tribute by their owners,–a practice constantly referred to in the ancient records. Their unions were not recognized: a fact which reminds us of the distinction among the Romans between connubium and contubernium; and the children of a slave-mother by a free father remained slaves. * In the seventh ce ntury, however, private slaves were declared state-property, and great numbers were [233] then emancipated,–including nearly all–probably all–who were artizans or followed useful callings.Gradually a large class of freedmen came into existence; but until modern times the great mass of the common people appear to have remained in a condition analogous to serfdom. The greater number certainly had no family names,–which is considered evidence of a former slave-condition. Slaves proper were registered in the names of their owners: they do not seem to have had a cult of their own,–in early times, at least. But, prior to Meiji, only the aristocracy, samurai, doctors, and teachers–with perhaps a few other exceptions–could use a family name.Another queer bit of evidence or, the subject, furnished by the late Dr. Simmons, relates to the mode of wearing the hair among the subject-classes. Up to the time of the Ashikaga shogunate (1334 A. D. ), all classes excepting the nobility, samurai, Shinto priests, and doctors, shaved the greater part of the head, and wore queues; and this fashion of wearing the hair was called yakko-atama or dorei-atama–terms signifying â€Å"slave-head,† and indicating that the fashion originated in a period of servitude. [*In the year 645, the Emperor Kotoku issued the following edict on the subject:– The law of men and women shall be that the children born of a free man and a free woman shall belong to the father; if a free man takes to wife a slave-woman, her children shall belong to the mother; if a free woman marries a slave-man, the children shall belong to the father; if they are slaves of two houses, the children shall belong to the mother. The children of temple-serfs shall follow the rule for freemen. But in regard to others who become slaves, they shall be treated according to the rule for slaves. –Aston's translation of the Nihongi, Vol. II, p. 202. ] About t he origin of Japanese slavery, much remains to be learned.There are evidences of successive immigrations; and it is possible that some, at least, of the earlier Japanese settlers were reduced by later invaders to the status of servitude. Again, [234] there was a considerable immigration of Koreans and Chinese, some of whom might have voluntarily sought servitude as a refuge from worse evils. But the subject remains obscure. We know, however, that degradation to slavery was a common punishment in early times; also, that debtors unable to pay became the slaves of their creditors; also, that thieves were sentenced to become the slaves of those whom they had robbed. Evidently there were great differences in the conditions of servitude.The more unfortunate class of slaves were scarcely better off than domestic animals; but there were serfs who could not be bought or sold, nor employed at other than special work; these were of kin to their lords, and may have entered voluntarily into serv itude for the sake of sustenance and protection. Their relation to their masters reminds us of that of the Roman client to the Roman patron. [*An edict issued by the Empress Jito, in 690, enacted that a father could sell his son into real slavery; but that debtors could be sold